Vaginitis is spectrum of conditions the cause vulvovaginal symptoms such as itching, burning, irritation and abnormal vaginal discharge. Causes of Vaginitis Clinical features: Change in color, discharge, odor, pruritus, irritation, burning sensation. Swelling, dyspareunia, dysuria. Normal secretions are: clear, elastic and mucoid secretions (midcycle); and thick, white secretions adhere to […]
Vitamins are essential organic compounds required in minute quantities for proper growth and nutrition. As vitamins cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be supplied through the diet. Fat soluble vitamins Fat soluble vitamins are soluble in lipids. They have common isoprene structure; 5 carbon unsaturated branched compounds. […]
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is molecular biology based laboratory technique used for amplification of DNA fragment. DNA is amplified by cycles of heating and cooling with enzyme and substrate. Sufficient copies of DNA can be obtained from desired fragment of DNA. Components of PCR Process of PCR This cycle of […]
Epigenetics is the change made in gene expression without change in DNA sequences. It is reversible change without mutation. It is heritable both mitotically and meiotically. Primary mechanism of epigenetic changes: DNA methylation It is adding methyl group in DNA. It changes the expression of DNA without changing the underlying […]
Also called tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. The TCA cycle is both catabolic and anabolic. It is catabolic as all macromolecules when broken down enter to TCA cycle for energy production. And it is anabolic as TCA intermediates are used for synthesis of other compounds. Examples: Succinyl Co-A for heme synthesis, […]
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are those fatty acids which have more than 2 double bonds on their structure. These cannot be synthesized inside the body and requirement must be fulfilled through diet. Nuts, seeds, plant oil, sea food are rich in PUFA. Methyl end → CH₃CH₂CH=CHCH₂CH=CHCH₂CH=CH(CH₂)₇COOH ← Carboxy end Numbering […]
Also known as Gastrinoma, Zollinger Ellison syndrome is relatively rare condition characterized by gastrin producing tumors resulting in excessive secretion of gastrin. Gastrin producing cells (G cells) are most abundant in stomach. The most common site of gastrinoma is duodenum > Pancreases > stomach. Clinical features: Zollinger Ellison syndrome can […]
Rheumatoid arthritis is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic destructive inflammation of joints. Risk factors: Female gender. Genetic predisposition: Clinical features: Symptoms: Insidious onset painful multiple symmetric joints (MCP joints, PIP joints of hand, wrist, ankle, knee, shoulder, hips, elbow). Initial pattern of joint involvement could be polyarticular (>5 […]
Ankylosing spondylitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of spine and pelvis that leads to fusion of the affected joints. Risk factors: Other conditions associated with HLA-B27: Clinical features: Extra-articular manifestations: Examination: How to perform Modified Schober test? Investigations and work up: Diagnosis: Bone marrow edema / Sarcoilitis + 1 spondyloarthropathy […]
Normal menstrual bleeding ranges from 2 to 7 days. Abnormal uterine bleeding refers to alterations in quantity, duration or frequency. Causes: Clinical Features: Investigations and work-up: Treatment and Management: Acute heavy bleedings: 1st line hormonal management of Abnormal uterine bleeding is progesterone. Progesterone stabilizes the endometrium in most physiological way. […]
Uterine Leiomyoma/ Fibroids are the most common benign neoplasm of the female genital tract. Fibroid is monoclonal tumor and is hormone sensitive. Its size will increase in pregnancy and decrease after menopause. Malignant transformation in to leiomyosarcoma is rare. Prevalence and risk factors: Clinical features: Pain: Bleeding: Infertility: Examination: Work […]
Aminoglycosides are antibiotics which act by inhibiting protein synthesis. They act by binding to 30S ribosomal subunit and cause misreading of the genetic code. The term ‘Aminoglycoside’ represents their structure which is two amino sugars joined by a glcosidic linkage to a central hexose nucleus. Examples: Amikacin, Gentamicin, Neomycin, Streptomycin, […]
Syncope is a transient, self-limited loss of consciousness due to acute global impairment of cerebral blood flow. The onset is rapid, duration brief, and recovery spontaneous and complete. Other causes of transient loss of consciousness need to be distinguished from syncope which includes: A syncopal prodrome (presyncope) is common, although […]
